The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean Read online

  The Oxford Handbook of

  The Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean

  The Oxford Handbook of

  The Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean

  Edited by

  Carolina López-ruiz

  and

  Brian R. Doak

  Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries.

  Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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  © Oxford University Press 2019

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  You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

  Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress

  ISBN 978–0–19–049934–1

  ebook ISBN 978–0–19–005838–8

  1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

  Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

  Acknowledgments

  We profusely thank all the contributors in this volume. A Herculean task like this requires patience, resilience, and responsiveness on all sides, and frequent nagging on our part. We are doubly grateful for those who stepped in later in the game to replace a handful of canceled chapters, and who did an outstanding job meeting the deadlines we set. Thank you everyone for bearing with us.

  At different stages, several colleagues have offered invaluable advice with planning and other matters. Thank you, Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar, Robert Hawley, Tamar Hodos, Philip Johnston, Anthony Kaldellis, Ana María Niveau, Dennis Pardee, Jonathan Prag, Jo Quinn, Brigitte Treumann, Peter van Dommelen, and José-Ángel Zamora. Thanks to Nora Clair and Esther Rodríguez for their help with some drawings and maps. We also thank Stefan Vranka, editor at Oxford University Press, for his support and advice throughout, and for believing that it could be done despite the obvious obstacle of the international and non-English-centered nature of the field of Phoenician studies. We also thank his assistant editors Lakshmanan Sethuraman and Palani Santhosh, and before them Emily Zogbi and John Veranes, as well as the copyeditors. We want to mention with gratitude the work of Luke Gorton, Linda Gosner, and Philip Johnston as translators of several chapters at our request, besides other translators commissioned directly by the authors. Finally, we thank Ayla Cevik who compiled the index for this volume.

  Finally, with this volume we want to honor the memory of one of the most important figures in Phoenician archaeology of the last century, Lawrence E. Stager (1943–2017). Larry was initially going to contribute a piece on the tophet, but owing to health reasons he had stepped out. Sadly, he passed away before this volume reached completion. Larry Stager had been mentor and friend or colleague of several of our contributors as well as both editors, and he will be very much missed.

  Contents

  Abbreviations

  List of Contributors

  Introduction

  1. Introduction

  Brian R. Doak and Carolina López-Ruiz

  2. Research Tools

  Philip C. Schmitz

  3. Birth and Prospects of a Discipline

  Nicholas C. Vella

  Part One: Histories

  The East

  4. Canaanite Roots, Proto-Phoenicia, and the early Phoenician Period: ca. 1300–1000 bce

  Ann E. Killebrew

  5. Phoenicia in the Later Iron Age: Tenth Century bce to the Assyrian and Babylonian Periods

  Guy Bunnens

  6. Tyre and Its Colonial Expansion

  María Eugenia Aubet Semmler

  7. Phoenicia Under the Achaemenid Empire

  Vadim Jigoulov

  8. The Hellenistic Period and Hellenization in Phoenicia

  Corinne Bonnet

  9. Phoenicia in the Roman Empire

  Julien Aliquot

  10. The Archaeology of Phoenician Cities

  Hélène Sader

  The West

  11. Early Carthage: From Its Foundation to the Battle of Himera (ca. 814–480 bce)

  Hédi Dridi

  12. Classical-Hellenistic Carthage Before the Punic Wars (479–265 bce)

  Dexter Hoyos

  13. The Punic Wars (264–146 bce)

  Christopher de Lisle

  14. Carthage after the Punic Wars and the Neo-Punic Legacy

  Matthew Hobson

  Part Two: Areas of Culture

  Language and Literature

  15. The Language

  Maria Giulia Amadasi Guzzo

  16. Inscriptions

  Madadh Richey

  17. The Alphabet and Its Legacy

  Madadh Richey

  18. Phoenician Literature

  Carolina López-Ruiz

  Religion

  19. Religion

  Paolo Xella

  20. Funerary Ritual

  Mireia López-Bertran

  21. The Tophet and Infant Sacrifice

  Matthew M. McCarty

  Material Culture

  22. Pottery and Trade

  Francisco J. Núñez

  23. Art and Iconography

  Eric Gubel

  24. Levantine Art in the “Orientalizing” Period

  Marian H. Feldman

  25. Coins

  John W. Betlyon

  26. Metallurgy and Other Technologies

  Philip Andrew Johnston and Brett Kaufman

  27. Seafaring and Shipwreck Archaeology

  Jeffrey P. Emanuel

  28. Residential Architecture

  Roald Docter

  29. Agriculture

  Carlos Gómez Bellard

  Part Three: Regional Studies and Interactions

  30. The Levant

  Gunnar Lehmann

  31. Cyprus

  Sabine Fourrier

  32. The Aegean

  Nikos Stampolidis

  33. The Italian Peninsula

  Jeremy Mark Hayne

  34. Sardinia

  Andrea Roppa

  35. Sicily

  Salvatore De Vincenzo

  36. Malta and Gozo

  Nicholas C. Vella and Maxine Anastasi

  37. Ibiza

  Benjamí Costa

  38. The Iberian Peninsula

  Joseˊ Luis López Castro

  39. Phoenicians in Portugal

  Ana Margarida Arruda

  40. The Gadir–Tyre Axis

  Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar

  41. North Africa: From the Atlantic to Algeria

  Alfredo Mederos Martín

  42. Phoenician Exploration

  Duane W. Roller

  Part Four: Receptions

  43. Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible

  Brian R. Doak

  44. Phoenicians and Carthaginians in Greco-Roman Literature

  Josephine Crawley Quinn

  45. Neo-Phoenician Identities in the Roman Empire

  Anthony Kaldellis

  46. Phoeni
cians and Carthaginians in the Western Imagination

  Brien K. Garnand

  47. Phoenician Identity in Modern Lebanon

  Claude Doumet-Serhal

  48. Punic Heritage in Tunisia

  Kathryn Lafrenz Samuels and Peter van Dommelen

  Index

  Abbreviations

  ARE Breasted, J. H. 1906–1907. Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  BAAL Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises.

  BABESCH Bulletin Antieke Beschaving.

  BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

  BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies.

  BNJ Worthington, I., ed. Brill’s New Jacoby (Fragments of Ancient Historians). Brill Online, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby.

  BNP Cancik, H., H. Schneider, and M. Landfester. Brill’s New Pauly. Brill Online, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/brill-s-new-pauly.

  CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin-Brandenburg: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

  CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, Pars Prima (1881–1962). Paris: E. Republicae typographeo.

  CuPAUAM Cuadernos de Préhistoria y arqueologia.

  DCPP Lipiński, E., ed. 1992. Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique. Turnhout: Brepols.

  EHA Naveh, J. 1982. Early History of the Alphabet, an Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Paleography. Jerusalem and Leiden: Magnes Press-Hebrew University and Brill.

  FGrH Jacoby, F., ed. 1957–1958. Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Second edition, commentary, 1954–1962. Leiden: Brill.

  FrRH T. J. Cornell, ed. 2014. The Fragments of Roman Historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  HALOT Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm. 2001. Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill.

  IG Inscriptiones Graecae. Berlin 1873–. Ed. minor (IG2), Berlin 1924–. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

  IK Guzzo Amadasi, M. G., and V. Karageorghis. 1977. Fouilles de Kition III: Inscriptions phéniciennes. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities.

  JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient.

  JKF Jahrbuch für kleinasiatische Forschung. Internationale orientalistische Zeitschrift.

  KAI Donner, H., and W. Röllig. 1962–2002. Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, I-III. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

  KTU3 Dietrich, M., O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín. 2013. Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani und anderen Orten. III., erweit. Auflage. AOAT 360/1. Münster: Ugarit.

  NRSV New Revised Standard Version (Hebrew Bible).

  PNA Baker, H. D., ed. 1998–2011. The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project.

  Reppal Revue du Centre d’Etudes de la Civilisation Phénicienne-Punique et des Antiquités Libyques.

  RES Répertoire d’épigraphie sémitique publié par la commission du Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (RES). 1900–. Paris: Imprimerie nationale.

  RIMA Grayson, A. K. 1987–1996. The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

  RINAP Frame, G., ed. 2011–. Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

  SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum I–XXV (ed. J. J. E. Hondius et al.) 1923–71, Leiden; XXVI–XXVII and XXVIII–XIIL (ed. H. W. Pleket et al.) 1978–79, Alphen; 1980–95, Amsterdam.

  SAA State Archives of Assyria. Helsinki, 1987–.

  SVA Bengtson, H., ed. 1975. Die Staatsverträge des Altertums: Die Verträge der griechisch-römischen Welt von 700 bis 338 v. Chr. Volume 2, second edition. Munich: C. H. Beck.

  WO Die Welt des Orients.

  ZAV Zeitschrift für Assyrologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie.

  List of Contributors

  Julien Aliquot, French National Center for Scientific Research, CNRS, HiSoMA, Lyon

  Maria Giulia Amadasi Guzzo, Sapienza Università di Roma

  Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar, University of Málaga

  Maxine Anastasi, University of Malta

  Ana Margarida Arruda, UNIARQ Centro de Arqueologia, Universidade de Lisboa

  María Eugenia Aubet Semmler, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona

  John W. Betlyon, Pennsylvania State University

  Corinne Bonnet, Université Toulouse – Jean Jaurès

  Guy Bunnens, Liège University

  Benjamí Costa, Archaeological Museum of Ibiza and Formentera

  Christopher de Lisle, University of Oxford

  Salvatore De Vincenzo, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo

  Brian R. Doak, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon

  Roald Docter, Ghent University

  Hédi Dridi, Université de Neuchâtel

  Claude Doumet-Serhal, British Museum and University College, London

  Jeffrey P. Emanuel, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachussets

  Marian H. Feldman, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore

  Sabine Fourrier, HiSoMA, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux, Lyon

  Brien K. Garnand, Howard University, Washington, D.C.

  Carlos Gómez Bellard, Universitat de València

  Eric Gubel, Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels

  Jeremy Mark Hayne, University of Glasgow

  Matthew Hobson, University of Leiden

  Dexter Hoyos, University of Sydney

  Vadim Jigoulov, Morgan State University, Baltimore

  Philip Andrew Johnston, Researcher in Residence, New York Public Library

  Anthony Kaldellis, The Ohio State University

  Brett Kaufman, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

  Ann E. Killebrew, Pennsylvania State University

  Kathryn Lafrenz Samuels, University of Maryland

  Gunnar Lehmann, Ben-Gurion University

  Mireia López-Bertran, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona

  José Luis López Castro, Universidad de Almería

  Carolina López-Ruiz, The Ohio State University

  Matthew M. McCarty, University of British Columbia

  Alfredo Mederos Martín, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

  Francisco J. Núñez, independent researcher

  Josephine Crawley Quinn, University of Oxford

  Madadh Richey, University of Chicago

  Duane W. Roller, The Ohio State University

  Andrea Roppa, University of Padova

  Hélène Sader, American University of Beirut

  Philip C. Schmitz, Eastern Michigan University

  Nikos Stampolidis, University of Crete

  Peter van Dommelen, Brown University, Providence

  Nicholas C. Vella, University of Malta

  Paolo Xella, University of Pisa

  The Iron Age Mediterranean, ca. eighth?sixth centuries bce.

  Source: E. Rodríguez.

  The Iron Age Levant, ca. eighth-sixth centuries bce.

  Source: E. Rodríguez.

  Introduction

  Chapter 1

  Introduction

  Brian R. Doak and Carolina López-Ruiz

  The Phoenicians created the Mediterranean as we know it. They are the constantly underrated, even marginalized “third party” in a story written as a tale of Greek and Roman success. But it is no exaggeration to say that the world that the Greeks and Romans experienced, and to some extent the world we live in today, would have been quite different had the Phoenicians not existed. Greeks and Romans, and many others throughout the Mediterranean, may not have started using alphabetic writing when they did; hence, literacy and even the development of genres such as history or philosophy might have been delayed—even for centuries. Moreover, the Phoenician commercial and colonial expansion starting in the late ninth century bce laid out pan-Mediterranea
n networks and models on which the Greek’s own colonial expansion thrived. And were it not for Carthage’s grip on the central and western Mediterranean after 500 bce, Rome might not have engaged in the wars that led to its own expansion into Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia, which proved to be the foundation of its empire outside of Italy. It was the Phoenicians who first explored the Atlantic shores of Africa and northern Europe (key sources of tin, codfish, and other goods) and integrated them into Mediterranean trade networks.

  But this history was written by the eventual winners. The cultural heirs of the Greeks and Romans bestowed upon them the label of “Classical,” not undeservedly perhaps, as we still lean on their institutions and art forms. The Phoenicians, however, more than any other group, were an essential component of their histories, mythologies, and technological and artistic trajectories, and the Classical authors knew it. They wrote about this inescapable neighbor and rival from many angles (historiographical, geographical, political, mythographical, and fantastical), and even when we lost Phoenician literature and know next to nothing about how they saw themselves as a people, the Phoenicians still emerge as a dynamic and transformative force in other people’s narratives, be it of the Greeks, Romans, Israelites, or Assyrians. The Phoenicians thus remain both familiar and elusive. They are a puzzle that holds key pieces of the cultural, economic, and political history of the Mediterranean and, by extension, of Europe and the Middle East.

  The Phoenicians were never lost from the sight of classicists, if only because of their part in the literary tradition, from Homer and Herodotos to the Aeneid. But with the development of archaeology as a discipline and of Near Eastern studies as a field, they acquired a greater historical and material corporality, as did the Etruscans, Celts, and others who had until then a purely literary existence. Interest in their legacy has suffered its ups and downs, following the nineteenth- and twentieth-century trends regarding the origins of the allegedly “Western” heritage and even its alleged racial lineage, straining the relations between the study of Classical and Near Eastern (read “Semitic”) studies and predetermining the views on how these cultures related to each other (see chapters on the history of scholarship and on the reception of the Phoenicians in this volume, chapters 3 and 46, respectively).